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Freundlich used 3.2 g wax for 14C dating from below the left arm of the Flora sculpture. The earliest 14C dating of the Flora bust by Jürgen Freundlich dates from the 1980s 5 and excludes the Renaissance period 5, 8. The bust could not be dated using 14C dating immediately after the acquisition in 1909 since 14C analysis was only developed by Willard Libby in 1946 shortly after the discovery of the radioisotope 15.
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Only the wax markers that are stable over time should be considered for the identification of the wax type. Determining the composition of the wax is complicated because the wax, and the additives, might be altered through degradation processes. Terpenoids of plant origin are also found in wax. Additionally, stearin, a mixture of palmitic and stearic acids, obtained from animal fats, has been used since 1831. Pigments and dyes were also added and starch was used as an extender. Typical additives include: tallow (animal fat), which increases the malleability and softness of the wax, and resins such as turpentine (composed of abietadienic acids, pimaradienic acids and cis-abienol or epimanool, larixol, larixyl acetate), which harden the wax.
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Various substances were commonly added to the Spermaceti wax mixture in order to modify the properties of wax. Spermaceti wax, which comes from the head cavity of the sperm whale, was identified in the Flora bust by chemical analysis in 1910 6 and the 1980s 5, and was commonly used in the 19th c. A corroded 6000-year-old small amulet discovered in Mehrgarh (Baluchistan, Pakistan) proves that beeswax has been used for lost wax casting since 4000 BC 14. Beeswax is the most common wax, with documented use by early humans 13. Wax used for artworks could be of animal origin (Chinese wax, lanolin, beeswax or spermaceti wax), vegetal origin (carnauba, ouricuri, candelila, esparto or Japan wax) or fossil origin (paraffin from petroleum). Additionally, researchers point out that while spermaceti wax was rare and expensive, it was in use during the Renaissance.Although the quality of the analyses was very high, the art-historical interpretation of the bust was likely influenced by the attribution that the researchers wished to be obtained, an attribution to Da Vinci (S1). From a stylistic standpoint, experts have suggested that the polychromy was applied using techniques from the Renaissance, and that the Flora’s face closely resembles Leonardo’s other figures 11, 12. Analyses in the 1900s of the wax proved inconclusive 9, however an expert analysing the surface of the bust argued that the observed cracks were indicative of significant aging (Fig. The arguments for the bust’s production during the Renaissance, and thus attribution to Leonardo da Vinci, also use both chemical and stylistic evidence. Lastly, it should be noted that there is no other known wax model from the Renaissance period. It is however, possible that the objects could have been added later, when modifications were carried out. When the backside of the bust was opened it was found to contain a wood fragment, newspaper, and other materials from 19th c. Additionally, evaluations of the casting method suggest that the bust could not have been produced during the Renaissance 8. attribution including a statutory declaration by the son of Richard Cockle Lucas stating that his father made the Flora bust in 1846 and a watercolour painting of the bust by Lucas’ son 5, 8. There are also historical documents that support a 19th c. In the 1980s a 14C dated sample indicated that the bust was not made in the Renaissance 8. when it was used for candle wax and to create sculptures from 2D models 7. Chemists have observed the presence of spermaceti in the bust’s wax 6, which was a rare material during Renaissance but very common in the 19th c.
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In arguments against the bust’s production in the Renaissance, and instead that the bust was produced in the 19th c., researchers have relied on chemical analyses and historical documents.